Anatony Exam Questions Essay

Chapter 19 Blood Specify the composition and functions of plasma. Plasma is mainly composed of water, electrolytes, and proteins, in particular, globulin and albumin. Its most important functions include the transport of carbon dioxide, oxygen, glucose, amino acids, and lipids, among others.   Describe the recycling system for aged or damaged red blood cells   Old or damaged red blood cells are recycled after certain macrophages called Kupfer cells consume them through phagocytosis. The hemoglobin portion of the red blood is broken down into heme and globin. The globin portion is reused while the heme portion is further degraded into iron, which is also reused. III. Explain the importance of blood typing and the basis for ABO and Rh incompatibilities. Blood typing basically determines the blood type of a person. Performing blood typing is important most especially during transfusion so that doctors would be able to transfuse the appropriate blood type to the patient. It is important to infuse blood with same blood type as the patient to avoid transfusion reactions. On the other hand, ABO and Rh incompatibilities happen when the blood being transfused does not have the same blood type and Rh as the patient. For example, its is ABO incompatible if blood type B is transfused to a patient with blood type A. Likewise, it is Rh incompatible if a patient who is blood type B, Rh positive, or a patient who has the D antigen in his blood, is transfused with a blood that is blood type B, Rh positive, or a patient who lacks the D antigen in his blood. Categorize the various white blood cells on the basis of their structures and functions. Generally, white blood cells are divided into two categories: the granulocytes, which are white blood cells with granules in their cytoplasm and agranulocytes, which are white blood cells without granules. Granulocytes are basically cells with phagocytic capabilities which include neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, and basophils. On the other hand, agranuloctyes mainly include the lymphocytes, which are cells responsible for producing antibodies to fight foreign substances and induce immunity. Chapter 22 Lymphatic System and Immunity I Identify the major components of the lymphatic system, and explain their functions The major components of the lymphatic system include, the bone marrow, which   lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. Their main functions include the transportation of lipids to the blood, the production of lymphocytes for defense against diseases, and also drains fluid from cells and tissues. List the body’s nonspecific defenses and explain the function of each. The body’s nonspecific defenses include skin barriers and mucous membranes which block foreign substances from entering, fever, which is a defense against inflammation, and white blood cells such as basophils, neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells, and eosinophils, which all kill and attack foreign substances. III. Define specific resistance, and identify the forms and properties of immunity.   Specific resistance means having an immunity to a particular foreign substance or disease. This type of resistance is induced by lymphocytes, such as cytotoxic T-cells, and antibodies. However, immunity can also be acquired through vaccination against a disease.   Chapter 20 Heart Describe the location and general features of the heart. The heart is located in the middle of the thorax, underneath the left breastbone. The features of the heart include the atrium, which are two chambers on the upper part, the ventricles, which two chambers on the lower part, the septum, a muscle in the middle that separates the left and right side of the heart, and valves that regulate blood flow. Trace the flow of blood through the heart, identifying the major blood vessels, chambers, and heart valves   The oxygen-poor blood first enters the heart through two large veins, the superior and inferior vena cava, and fill the right atrium. The tricuspid valve opens and blood fills the right ventricle. After the right ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent the blood from flowing back to the atrium. Next, the pulmonary valve opens allowing the blood flow into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs. The pulmonary valve closes to prevent blood from reentering the right ventricle. The oxygen rich blood from the lungs then enters the pulmonary vein and fills the left atrium. The mitral valve then opens to allow the blood to fill the left ventricle. The mitral valve then closes to prevent blood from reentering the left atrium. Blood then flows through the aorta and to the rest of the body. III.   Describe the events of an action potential in cardiac muscle, and explain the importance of calcium ions to the contractile process The contraction of the heart itself is basically caused by contractions of small cells of the heart, which is triggered by electric impulse called action potential. The cardiac muscle is basically stimulated to by a voltage to contract. During these events inward flow of calcium ions is equal to the outward flow of potassium. Basically, calcium is important because when it is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum it increases myoplasmic free calcium which it turn causes contraction Describe the vascular supply to the heart.   The vascular supply or the oxygen supply to the heart is basically carried out by one atrium and one ventricle. Explain the events of the cardiac cycle, including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole, and relate the heart sounds to specific events in the cycle. The cardiac cycle basically begins with Diastasis where in the pressure in the aorta is descreasing while the venous pressure is increasing. Once the tricuspid and mitral valves close, the first hear t sound is produced which is known as S1 or first â€Å"lub-dub.†Ã‚   Next is the atrial contraction wherein the atria transfers blood into the ventricle and increases ventricular pressure. In the ventricular isometric contraction, the aortic and pulmonary valves close, the blood volume is constant and the pressure slightly increases. Here, the second â€Å"lub-dub† sound or S2 sound is produced. Next is called rapid ejection wherein the aortic valves open and blood flows rapidly from the ventricle into the aorta. Afterwards,   The ejection or flow of blood from the ventricles decreases along with ventricular and aortic pressure. The left ventricle pressure then decreases causing the aortic and pulmonary valves to close and this is called Isometric Relaxation. Finally the blood from the aorta to the peripheral arteries continues to flow while the aortic pressure falls slowly. Chapter 21 Blood vessels and Circulation Distinguish among the types of blood vessels on the basis of their structure and function. The are basically three types of blood vessels: the arteries, veins, and capillaries. The arteries pump blood away from the heart while the veins pump blood towards the heart. On the other hand, capillaries basically connect the arteries and veins and allows exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.   Describe the factors that influence blood pressure and how blood pressure is regulated Blood pressure is basically the measurement pressure applied on the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps blood through the body. The factors that influence blood pressure are the amount of force and blood pumped and the size and versatility of the arteries. However, other factors that also affect blood pressure include temperature, diet, emotional and physical state, posture, and medication. III.   Identify the principal blood vessels and the functional characteristics of the special circulation to the brain, heart, and lungs. The principal blood vessels are the arteries, veins, and capillaries. The types of special circulation include coronary circulation which is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels which deliver blood to and from the heart muscle. In the brain, the arteries that carry blood to the brain are the internal carotids and vertebral arteries. On the other hand, blood is circulated to the lungs to gain oxygen before it is transported throughout the entire body. Discuss the mechanisms and various pressures involved in the movement of fluids between capillaries and interstitial spaces. The fluid here basically flows out of   a capillary near an atriole and reenters a capillary near a venule. However, the movement of the fluid at any point in the capillary wall is determined by blood pressure and osmotic pressure, which are two opposing forces. Basically the movement of tissue and blood fluids are different because of their osmotic pressure disparity.